Motivation can be defined as power (energy) a person who can cause the level of persistence and entusiasmenya in executing an activity, whether sourced from within the individual itself (intrinsic motivation) or from outside the individual (extrinsic motivation).
How strong is the motivation of the individual will decide on the quality of the display of behavior, both in the context of learning, work and other life .. Studies on motivation have long been a main attraction for educators, managers, and researchers, mainly associated with the interests of achieving the performance (achievement) a person. In the context of psychological studies, Abin Makmun Shamsuddin (2003) suggests that to understand the motivation of individuals can be seen from several indicators, including: (1) the duration of activities, (2) frequency of activity, (3) persistence in activities, (4) fortitude, tenacity and ability to deal with obstacles and difficulties, (5) devotion and sacrifice to achieve goals; (6) level of aspiration to be achieved by the activities carried out; (7) qualification level of achievement or product (output) is achieved from the activities carried out; (8) the attitude toward the target activity.
To understand the motivation, we will meet with several theories about motivation, among others: (1) the theory of Abraham H. Maslow (Theory of Needs), (2) McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements), (3) Clyton theory of Alderfer (ERG Theory), (4) theory of Herzberg (Two Factor Theory), (5) theory of Justice, (6) The theory of determination purpose; (7) Victor H. Theory Vroom (expectancy theory), (8) Reinforcement theory and behavior modification, and (9) theory with the Achievement Rewards Linkages. (Excerpted from various sources: Winardi, 2001:69-93; Sondra P. Siagian, 286-294; Indriyo Gitosudarmo and Agus Mulyono 0.183 to 190, Fred Luthan 0.140 to 167).
1. Abraham H. Theory Maslow (Theory of Needs)
The theory of motivation developed by Abraham H. Maslow basically revolves around the notion that humans have five levels or hierarchy of needs, namely: (1) physiological needs (physiological needs), such as hunger, thirst, rest and sex, (2) safety needs (safety needs), not in a purely physical sense, but also mental, psychological and intellectual, (3) the need for love (love needs), (4) the need for self-esteem (esteem needs), which generally reflected in the various status symbols, and (5) self-actualization (self-actualization), in the sense of providing an opportunity for someone to develop the potential inherent in themselves so that turned into a real capability.
The needs of the former (physiological) and second (security) is sometimes classified in other ways, eg by classify it as a primary need, while others also known as secondary classification requirements. Irrespective of how to make a classification of human needs, what is clear is that the nature, type and intensity of human needs differ from one person to another because the human is a unique individual. It is also clear that human needs are not only material, but is pskologikal, mental, intellectual and even spiritual.
It is interesting to note that with the increasing number of organizations that grow and develop in society and the more profound understanding of the human element in organizational life, the theory of "classical" Maslow increasingly used, even said to have "corrected". Completion or "correction" is mainly directed at the concept of "hierarchy of needs" expressed by Maslow. The term "hierarchy" can be interpreted as levels. Or by analogy means stairs. The logic is that to climb a ladder rung means starting with the first, second, third and so on. If the concept is applied to the satisfaction of human needs, it means that someone will not try to satisfy the needs of the second level, - in this case before the needs of safety-first level namely food, clothing, and shelter are met, the third one will not be sought satisfaction before a person feels safe, so well beyond.
Departing from the fact that the understanding of the various human needs deepening and perfecting "correction" is felt not only proper, but also is necessary because experience shows that enterprises satisfying the various needs of humans take place simultaneously. That is, while satisfying physical needs, someone at the same time want to enjoy a sense of security, to feel appreciated, needed friends and want to develop.
Thus it can be said that the more appropriate if the various human needs is classified as a series and not as a hierarchy. In this connection, it should be emphasized that:
* Need a one time have been met is likely to arise again in the future;
* Pemuasaan specific needs, especially their physical needs, can shift from quantitative to qualitative approach in fulfillment.
* Various needs will not be reached "saturation point" in the sense that the arrival of a condition in which a person is no longer able to do something in the fulfillment of these needs.
Although Maslow's thinking about the theory of this requirement seems more theoretical, but has provided inspiration for the foundation and development of theory-oriented theory of motivation that more needs to be applied next.
2. McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements)
From McClelland is known about the theory needs to achieve or Need for Acievement (N. Ach) which states that the motivation is different, according to the strength of one's needs for achievement. Murray was quoted as saying by Winardi formulate the requirement of achievement as a desire: "Implement something difficult task or job. Control, manipulate, or organize physical objects, people, or ideas implement these things as quickly as possible and seindependen possible, according to prevailing conditions. Overcoming obstacles, achieve high standards. Achieve peak performance for yourself. Being able to win in competition with other parties. Improve themselves through the successful application of talent. "
According to McClelland characteristics of high achievers (high achievers) have three common characteristics: (1) a preference for tasks with a moderate degree of difficulty, (2) like the situations in which their performance arises because their own efforts , and not because of other factors, like luck for instance, and (3) want feedback on their successes and failures, compared to those with low achievers.
3. Clyton Alderfer Theory (Theory "ERG)
Alderfer theory known by the acronym "ERG". Acronym "ERG" Alderfer's theory is the first letters of the three terms are: E = Existence (the need for existence), R = Relatedness (kebutuhanuntuk associated with other parties, and G = Growth (the need for growth)
If the meaning of these three terms will be explored were two important things. First, conceptually there are similarities between the theories or models developed by Maslow and Alderfer. Because of "Existence" can be said is identical to the first and second hierarchy in the theory of Maslow, "Relatedness" in line with the third and fourth hierarchy of needs according to Maslow's concept and "Growth" meaning the same as "self actualization" according to Maslow. Second, Alderfer theory stresses that different kinds of human need fulfillment was cultivated simultaneously. If the theory of Alderfer listened further it would appear that:
* The non-fulfillment of a specific requirement, the greater the desire to satisfy it;
* Strong desire to satisfy the needs of a "higher" increases if the lower needs have been satisfied;
* Conversely, the more difficult to satisfy the needs of higher level, the greater the desire to memuasakan more basic needs.
It seems that this view is based on pragmatism by human nature. That is, recognizing its limitations, one can adjust themselves to the objective conditions faced by, among others, focused attention to matters that may be achieved.
4. Herzberg's Theory (Two Factor Theory)
Scientists recognized three have contributed significantly in understanding the motivation Herzberg. He developed the theory known as "Model Two Factors" of the motivation, the motivational factors and hygiene factors or "maintenance".
According to this theory is the motivational factor is the things that drive achievement intrinsic nature, which means the source in a person, while the meaning of hygiene or maintenance factors are factors that are extrinsic, which means originating from outside the self that contribute to determine the behavior someone in one's life.
According to Herzberg, is classified as a motivational factor among others is one's job, the success achieved, the opportunity to grow, progress in career and recognition of others. While hygiene factors or maintenance include the status of a person in the organization, an individual's relationship with her supervisor, relationship with co-workers, supervisory techniques applied by the supervisor, organizational policy, administrative systems within the organization, working conditions and benefits system applicable.One of the challenges in understanding and applying the Herzberg theory is that correctly take into account more factors which strongly influence a person's life, whether intrinsic or extrinsic nature
5. Justice Theory
The essence of this theory lies in the view that humans are driven to eliminate the gap between the effort made for the organization with the benefits received. That is, if an employee has the perception that the benefits they receive is inadequate, two possibilities can occur, namely:
* A will attempt to obtain greater benefits, or
* Reduce the intensity of effort made in carrying out the tasks which it is responsible.
In growing a particular perception, an employee typically uses four terms as a comparison, namely:
* The expectation about the amount of benefit received it deems appropriate based on personal qualifications, such as education, skills, nature of work and experiences;
* Benefits received by others in the organization of qualification and nature of pekerjaannnya relatively the same as those concerned themselves;
* Benefits received by other employees at other organizations in the same region and similar activities;
* Rules applicable laws regarding the amount and type of reward that is the right of employees
Maintenance of relationships with employees in this connection means that the officials and officers in the civil service must always be vigilant lest the perception of injustice occur, especially widespread among the employees. If until there will arise a variety of negative impacts to the organization, such as dissatisfaction, high levels of absenteeism, the frequent occurrence of accidents in the completion of tasks, employees often make mistakes in carrying out their work, strike or even the movement of employees to other organizations.
6. The theory of goal setting (goal setting theory)
Edwin Locke proposed that in setting the goal to have four different motivational mechanisms namely: (a) the objectives to direct attention, (b) the objectives set effort, (c) the objectives to increase persistence, and (d) support the strategic objectives -strategy and plans of activities. The following chart presents the instructive model of goal setting.
7. H. Victor Theory Vroom (expectancy theory)
Victor H. Vroom, in his book entitled "Work And Motivation" explores a theory called "Theory of Hope". According to this theory, motivation is the result of an outcome to be achieved by a concerned and estimates that his actions would lead to results that he wanted it. That is, if someone really wants something, and the road seemed open to get it, the concerned will try to get it.
Expressed in a very simple, prospect theory says that if someone wants something and hope to get something that is big enough, the concerned will be very motivated to get things he wants it. Conversely, if the hope of obtaining what he wanted was thin, his motivation for working would be low.
Among scientists and practitioners of human resource management theory this expectation has special attraction because of the emphasis on the importance of the personnel assist employees in determining the things he wants, and suggests ways most appropriate to realize that keinginannnya. This emphasis is considered important because experience shows that employees do not always know exactly what he wanted, let alone how to get it.
8. Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
Various theories or models of motivation that has been discussed in advance can be classified as a cognitive model of motivation because it is based on the needs of a person based on the perception of that person means is very subjective. His behavior was determined by these perceptions.
Whereas in organizational life will be realized and recognized that a person is determined also by the various consequences ekstrernal of behavior and actions. That is, from a variety of factors outside a person played a role as determinants and modifiers of behavior.
Be apaya In this case, known as "legal effect" which states that human beings tend to repeat behaviors that have consequences that benefit themselves and dodge mengibatkan behavior that resulted in the emergence of behavioral adverse consequences.
Very simple example is a typist who can finish a good job in a short time. Typist is getting praise from his superiors. Praising the results in an accelerated salary increases. Due to the typist that enjoys the consequences of his behavior, he then pushed not only work more diligently and more thorough, but even trying to improve her skills, for example by learning to use computers so that its ability to progressively increase, which in turn is expected to have positive consequences in the future.
Example otherwise is an employee who came late repeatedly reprimanded by his superiors, possibly accompanied by the threat of disciplinary sanctions. Warning and may be subject to sanctions as a consequence of negative employee behaviors that result in behavior modification, which came just in time in the task.It is important to note that for the ways that are used for permanent behavior modification into account the human dignity which must always be acknowledged and respected, ways are taken by "force" a humane as well.
9. Linkages with the Achievement Rewards theory.
Based on the view that there is no one perfect model of motivation in the sense that each has advantages and disadvantages, scientists are continuing to search for and find the best motivation system, in the sense of combining the various advantages such models into one model. It seems there is agreement among experts that the model is what is included in the theory of linking rewards with the achievement of an individual.
According to this model, the motivation of an individual is influenced by various factors, both internal and external. Included on the internal factors are: (a) the person's perception about themselves, (b) self-esteem, (c) personal expectations, (d) kebutuhaan; (e) desire, (f) job satisfaction, (g) performance resulting .
While external factors affect one's motivation, among others are: (a) the type and nature of work, (b) where a person joins the working group, (c) organization of employment, (d) the environmental situation in general, (e) the prevailing reward system and how its application.
How strong is the motivation of the individual will decide on the quality of the display of behavior, both in the context of learning, work and other life .. Studies on motivation have long been a main attraction for educators, managers, and researchers, mainly associated with the interests of achieving the performance (achievement) a person. In the context of psychological studies, Abin Makmun Shamsuddin (2003) suggests that to understand the motivation of individuals can be seen from several indicators, including: (1) the duration of activities, (2) frequency of activity, (3) persistence in activities, (4) fortitude, tenacity and ability to deal with obstacles and difficulties, (5) devotion and sacrifice to achieve goals; (6) level of aspiration to be achieved by the activities carried out; (7) qualification level of achievement or product (output) is achieved from the activities carried out; (8) the attitude toward the target activity.
To understand the motivation, we will meet with several theories about motivation, among others: (1) the theory of Abraham H. Maslow (Theory of Needs), (2) McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements), (3) Clyton theory of Alderfer (ERG Theory), (4) theory of Herzberg (Two Factor Theory), (5) theory of Justice, (6) The theory of determination purpose; (7) Victor H. Theory Vroom (expectancy theory), (8) Reinforcement theory and behavior modification, and (9) theory with the Achievement Rewards Linkages. (Excerpted from various sources: Winardi, 2001:69-93; Sondra P. Siagian, 286-294; Indriyo Gitosudarmo and Agus Mulyono 0.183 to 190, Fred Luthan 0.140 to 167).
1. Abraham H. Theory Maslow (Theory of Needs)
The theory of motivation developed by Abraham H. Maslow basically revolves around the notion that humans have five levels or hierarchy of needs, namely: (1) physiological needs (physiological needs), such as hunger, thirst, rest and sex, (2) safety needs (safety needs), not in a purely physical sense, but also mental, psychological and intellectual, (3) the need for love (love needs), (4) the need for self-esteem (esteem needs), which generally reflected in the various status symbols, and (5) self-actualization (self-actualization), in the sense of providing an opportunity for someone to develop the potential inherent in themselves so that turned into a real capability.
The needs of the former (physiological) and second (security) is sometimes classified in other ways, eg by classify it as a primary need, while others also known as secondary classification requirements. Irrespective of how to make a classification of human needs, what is clear is that the nature, type and intensity of human needs differ from one person to another because the human is a unique individual. It is also clear that human needs are not only material, but is pskologikal, mental, intellectual and even spiritual.
It is interesting to note that with the increasing number of organizations that grow and develop in society and the more profound understanding of the human element in organizational life, the theory of "classical" Maslow increasingly used, even said to have "corrected". Completion or "correction" is mainly directed at the concept of "hierarchy of needs" expressed by Maslow. The term "hierarchy" can be interpreted as levels. Or by analogy means stairs. The logic is that to climb a ladder rung means starting with the first, second, third and so on. If the concept is applied to the satisfaction of human needs, it means that someone will not try to satisfy the needs of the second level, - in this case before the needs of safety-first level namely food, clothing, and shelter are met, the third one will not be sought satisfaction before a person feels safe, so well beyond.
Departing from the fact that the understanding of the various human needs deepening and perfecting "correction" is felt not only proper, but also is necessary because experience shows that enterprises satisfying the various needs of humans take place simultaneously. That is, while satisfying physical needs, someone at the same time want to enjoy a sense of security, to feel appreciated, needed friends and want to develop.
Thus it can be said that the more appropriate if the various human needs is classified as a series and not as a hierarchy. In this connection, it should be emphasized that:
* Need a one time have been met is likely to arise again in the future;
* Pemuasaan specific needs, especially their physical needs, can shift from quantitative to qualitative approach in fulfillment.
* Various needs will not be reached "saturation point" in the sense that the arrival of a condition in which a person is no longer able to do something in the fulfillment of these needs.
Although Maslow's thinking about the theory of this requirement seems more theoretical, but has provided inspiration for the foundation and development of theory-oriented theory of motivation that more needs to be applied next.
2. McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements)
From McClelland is known about the theory needs to achieve or Need for Acievement (N. Ach) which states that the motivation is different, according to the strength of one's needs for achievement. Murray was quoted as saying by Winardi formulate the requirement of achievement as a desire: "Implement something difficult task or job. Control, manipulate, or organize physical objects, people, or ideas implement these things as quickly as possible and seindependen possible, according to prevailing conditions. Overcoming obstacles, achieve high standards. Achieve peak performance for yourself. Being able to win in competition with other parties. Improve themselves through the successful application of talent. "
According to McClelland characteristics of high achievers (high achievers) have three common characteristics: (1) a preference for tasks with a moderate degree of difficulty, (2) like the situations in which their performance arises because their own efforts , and not because of other factors, like luck for instance, and (3) want feedback on their successes and failures, compared to those with low achievers.
3. Clyton Alderfer Theory (Theory "ERG)
Alderfer theory known by the acronym "ERG". Acronym "ERG" Alderfer's theory is the first letters of the three terms are: E = Existence (the need for existence), R = Relatedness (kebutuhanuntuk associated with other parties, and G = Growth (the need for growth)
If the meaning of these three terms will be explored were two important things. First, conceptually there are similarities between the theories or models developed by Maslow and Alderfer. Because of "Existence" can be said is identical to the first and second hierarchy in the theory of Maslow, "Relatedness" in line with the third and fourth hierarchy of needs according to Maslow's concept and "Growth" meaning the same as "self actualization" according to Maslow. Second, Alderfer theory stresses that different kinds of human need fulfillment was cultivated simultaneously. If the theory of Alderfer listened further it would appear that:
* The non-fulfillment of a specific requirement, the greater the desire to satisfy it;
* Strong desire to satisfy the needs of a "higher" increases if the lower needs have been satisfied;
* Conversely, the more difficult to satisfy the needs of higher level, the greater the desire to memuasakan more basic needs.
It seems that this view is based on pragmatism by human nature. That is, recognizing its limitations, one can adjust themselves to the objective conditions faced by, among others, focused attention to matters that may be achieved.
4. Herzberg's Theory (Two Factor Theory)
Scientists recognized three have contributed significantly in understanding the motivation Herzberg. He developed the theory known as "Model Two Factors" of the motivation, the motivational factors and hygiene factors or "maintenance".
According to this theory is the motivational factor is the things that drive achievement intrinsic nature, which means the source in a person, while the meaning of hygiene or maintenance factors are factors that are extrinsic, which means originating from outside the self that contribute to determine the behavior someone in one's life.
According to Herzberg, is classified as a motivational factor among others is one's job, the success achieved, the opportunity to grow, progress in career and recognition of others. While hygiene factors or maintenance include the status of a person in the organization, an individual's relationship with her supervisor, relationship with co-workers, supervisory techniques applied by the supervisor, organizational policy, administrative systems within the organization, working conditions and benefits system applicable.One of the challenges in understanding and applying the Herzberg theory is that correctly take into account more factors which strongly influence a person's life, whether intrinsic or extrinsic nature
5. Justice Theory
The essence of this theory lies in the view that humans are driven to eliminate the gap between the effort made for the organization with the benefits received. That is, if an employee has the perception that the benefits they receive is inadequate, two possibilities can occur, namely:
* A will attempt to obtain greater benefits, or
* Reduce the intensity of effort made in carrying out the tasks which it is responsible.
In growing a particular perception, an employee typically uses four terms as a comparison, namely:
* The expectation about the amount of benefit received it deems appropriate based on personal qualifications, such as education, skills, nature of work and experiences;
* Benefits received by others in the organization of qualification and nature of pekerjaannnya relatively the same as those concerned themselves;
* Benefits received by other employees at other organizations in the same region and similar activities;
* Rules applicable laws regarding the amount and type of reward that is the right of employees
Maintenance of relationships with employees in this connection means that the officials and officers in the civil service must always be vigilant lest the perception of injustice occur, especially widespread among the employees. If until there will arise a variety of negative impacts to the organization, such as dissatisfaction, high levels of absenteeism, the frequent occurrence of accidents in the completion of tasks, employees often make mistakes in carrying out their work, strike or even the movement of employees to other organizations.
6. The theory of goal setting (goal setting theory)
Edwin Locke proposed that in setting the goal to have four different motivational mechanisms namely: (a) the objectives to direct attention, (b) the objectives set effort, (c) the objectives to increase persistence, and (d) support the strategic objectives -strategy and plans of activities. The following chart presents the instructive model of goal setting.
7. H. Victor Theory Vroom (expectancy theory)
Victor H. Vroom, in his book entitled "Work And Motivation" explores a theory called "Theory of Hope". According to this theory, motivation is the result of an outcome to be achieved by a concerned and estimates that his actions would lead to results that he wanted it. That is, if someone really wants something, and the road seemed open to get it, the concerned will try to get it.
Expressed in a very simple, prospect theory says that if someone wants something and hope to get something that is big enough, the concerned will be very motivated to get things he wants it. Conversely, if the hope of obtaining what he wanted was thin, his motivation for working would be low.
Among scientists and practitioners of human resource management theory this expectation has special attraction because of the emphasis on the importance of the personnel assist employees in determining the things he wants, and suggests ways most appropriate to realize that keinginannnya. This emphasis is considered important because experience shows that employees do not always know exactly what he wanted, let alone how to get it.
8. Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
Various theories or models of motivation that has been discussed in advance can be classified as a cognitive model of motivation because it is based on the needs of a person based on the perception of that person means is very subjective. His behavior was determined by these perceptions.
Whereas in organizational life will be realized and recognized that a person is determined also by the various consequences ekstrernal of behavior and actions. That is, from a variety of factors outside a person played a role as determinants and modifiers of behavior.
Be apaya In this case, known as "legal effect" which states that human beings tend to repeat behaviors that have consequences that benefit themselves and dodge mengibatkan behavior that resulted in the emergence of behavioral adverse consequences.
Very simple example is a typist who can finish a good job in a short time. Typist is getting praise from his superiors. Praising the results in an accelerated salary increases. Due to the typist that enjoys the consequences of his behavior, he then pushed not only work more diligently and more thorough, but even trying to improve her skills, for example by learning to use computers so that its ability to progressively increase, which in turn is expected to have positive consequences in the future.
Example otherwise is an employee who came late repeatedly reprimanded by his superiors, possibly accompanied by the threat of disciplinary sanctions. Warning and may be subject to sanctions as a consequence of negative employee behaviors that result in behavior modification, which came just in time in the task.It is important to note that for the ways that are used for permanent behavior modification into account the human dignity which must always be acknowledged and respected, ways are taken by "force" a humane as well.
9. Linkages with the Achievement Rewards theory.
Based on the view that there is no one perfect model of motivation in the sense that each has advantages and disadvantages, scientists are continuing to search for and find the best motivation system, in the sense of combining the various advantages such models into one model. It seems there is agreement among experts that the model is what is included in the theory of linking rewards with the achievement of an individual.
According to this model, the motivation of an individual is influenced by various factors, both internal and external. Included on the internal factors are: (a) the person's perception about themselves, (b) self-esteem, (c) personal expectations, (d) kebutuhaan; (e) desire, (f) job satisfaction, (g) performance resulting .
While external factors affect one's motivation, among others are: (a) the type and nature of work, (b) where a person joins the working group, (c) organization of employment, (d) the environmental situation in general, (e) the prevailing reward system and how its application.
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