When reviewing the literature of psychology, we will find many learning theories derived from psychology streams. In the link below will put forward four types of learning theory, namely: (A) the theory of behaviorism, (B) according to Piaget's cognitive learning theory, (C) information processing theory of Gagne, and (D) gestalt learning theory.
A. Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorism is one stream of psychology that views individuals only in terms of physical phenomena, and ignore the aspects - the mental aspect. In other words, behaviorism does not acknowledge the existence of intelligence, talents, interests and feelings of individuals in a study. Event learn merely reflexes trained in such a way that it becomes a habit that controlled individual.Some legal learning resulting from this behaviorism approach, including:
1. Connectionism (S-R Bond) by Thorndike.
From the experiments conducted on cats produce Thorndike's laws of learning, including:Law of Effect, meaning that if a satisfactory response effect, the relationship Stimulus - response will be stronger. Conversely, the effect achieved is not satisfactory response, it also weakened the relationship between stimulus-response.
* Law of Readiness; means that readiness refers to the assumption that the satisfaction derived from the organism pemdayagunaan introductory unit (conduction units), where these units lead to a tendency that drives organisms to do or not do something.
* Law of Exercise, meaning that the relationship between stimuli with increases in response closely, if often trained and will be further reduced if rare or not trained.
2. By Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning
From Pavlov's experiments conducted on a dog produce laws of learning, including:
* Law of respondents conditioning that is required by law habituation. If two kinds of stimuli presented simultaneously (one of whom serves as a reinforcer), then the reflex and other stimulus will increase.
* Extinction Law of respondents demanded the extermination of law. If the reflexes that have been strengthened through conditioning RESPONDENT was brought back without presenting reinforcer, then the strength will decrease.
3. Operant conditioning according B.F. Skinner
From the experiments conducted B.F. Skinner on rats and pigeons produce further against the laws of learning, including:
* Law of operant conditining ie, if accompanied by the emergence of stimulus reinforcement behavior, then the strength of these behaviors will increase.
* Law of operant Extinction that is if the occurrence of operant behavior has been strengthened through the process of conditioning stimulus was not accompanied by reinforcement, the strength of these behaviors will decrease and even disappear.
Reber (Muhibin Shah, 2003) mentions that what is meant by operant is a behavior that carries the same effect on the environment. The response in operant conditioning occur without preceded by a stimulus, but by the effects of reinforcer. Reinforcer itself is basically a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a number of specific responses, but not intentionally held as a couple other stimuli such as in classical conditioning.
4. According to Albert Bandura's Social Learning
Social learning theory also called theory of observational learning is a learning theory that is still relatively new compared with other learning theories. Unlike the adherents of other Behaviorism, Bandura view individual behavior is not purely automatic reflex of the stimulus (SR Bond), but also a result of reactions that arise as a result of interaction between the environment with the individual's own cognitive schemes. The basic principle of learning according to this theory, that the studied individuals, especially in social and moral learning occurs through imitation (Imitation) and presenting examples of behavior (modeling). This theory is also still looking at the importance of conditioning. Through the reward and punishment, an individual will think and decide which social behavior needs to be done.
Actually there are many other figures who developed the theory of learning this Behavioristic, such as: Watson that produce frequency principle and the principle of novelty, Guthrie and his theory called Contiguity Theory which produces threshold method (the threshold method), method of exhausting (The Fatigue Method) and unsuitable stimulus method (The Incompatible Response Method), Miller and Dollard with encouragement reduction theory.
B. According to Piaget's Cognitive Learning Theory
Piaget was one figure who is mentioned as a pioneer of constructivism flow. One contribution of his thinking which is widely used as a reference for understanding the individual cognitive development of theories about the stages of individual development. According to Piaget's cognitive development of individuals that includes four stages: (1) the sensory motor, (2) pre-operational, (3) concrete operational, and (4) formal operational. Another Thought of Piaget concerning the reconstruction process that is individual knowledge assimilation and accommodation. James Atherton (2005) mentions that asisimilasi is "the process by which a person takes material into Their mind from the environment, the which May mean changing the Evidence of Their Senses to make it fit" and the accommodation is "the difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation "
He proposed also, that learning will be more successful when tailored to the stage of cognitive development of students. Learners should be given the opportunity to experiment with physical objects, which are supported by the interaction with peers and helped by a question from the teacher insight. Teachers should provide much stimulus to students to want to actively interact with the environment, seek and find different things from the environment.Implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in learning are:
1. Language and the way children think differently from adults. Therefore, teachers teach using appropriate language with the way children think.
2. Children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment. Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
3. Material to be learned kids should just be felt but not foreign.
4. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of its development.
5. In the classroom, children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussions with friends.
C. Information Processing Theory of Robert Gagne
The assumption underlying this theory is that learning is a crucial factor in development. The development is a cumulative result of learning. According to Gagne that learning occurs in the admissions process information, to then be processed to produce output in the form of learning outcomes. In the processing of information occurs the interaction between internal conditions and external conditions of the individual. Internal conditions of a state within the individual who is required to achieve the result of learning and cognitive processes that occur in the individual. While the external condition is stimulation from the environment which affect the individual in the learning process.
According to Gagne stages of the learning process involves eight phases namely, (1) motivation, (2) understanding, (3) acquisition, (4) storage, (5) recall, (6) generalization, (7) treatment and (8) bait behind.
D. Gestalt Learning Theory
Gestalt comes from the German language which has the equivalent meaning as "shape or configuration." Main Gestalt view is that the object or event would be viewed as a whole is organized. According to Koffka and Kohler, there are seven principles which the most important organizations are:
1. Relationships form and background (figure and gound relationship), ie assume that every field of observation can be divided into two, namely the figure (shape) and background. Appearance of an object such as size, cut, color and so on to distinguish figure from background. When the figure and background are vague, there will be a blur of interpretation between background and figure.
2. Proximity (proxmity); that the elements adjacent to each other (both time and space) in the field of observation will be seen as a particular form.
3. Similarity (similarity); that something similar will tend to be viewed as an object which belong to each other.
4. The direction of joint (common direction); that the elements of field observations are in the same direction tend to be perceived as a figure or a certain shape.
5. Simplicity (simplicity); that people tend to organize field observations form a simple, regular appearance and tend to form a good overall arrangement based on symmetrical and regularity; and
6. Closure (closures) that people tend to fill the void of a pattern object or incomplete observations.
There are four assumptions underlying the Gestalt view, namely:
1. Behavior "Molar" should be well studied compared with the behavior of "Molecular". Behavior "Molecular" is the behavior in the form of muscle contraction or release of the gland, while the behavior of "Molar" is the behavior in connection with the outside environment. Running, walking, following college, playing football is some behavior "Molar". Behavior "Molar" is more meaningful than the behavior of "Molecular".
2. What is important in studying the behavior is to distinguish between geographical environment with behavioral environment. Geographical environment is the environment that actually exists, while the behavioral environment refers to something visible. For example, the mountain is visible from afar as if something beautiful. (Behavioral environment), when in fact is an environment full of dense forest (geographic environment).
3. The organism does not react to local stimulation or element or a part of the event, but react to the whole object or event. For example, the naming of a collection of stars, such as: Sagittarius, virgo, pisces, gemini and so is an example of this principle. Another example, the clouds look like a mountain or a particular animal.
4. Giving meaning to a sensory stimulus is a dynamic process and not as a static reaction. Observation process is a dynamic process in providing interpretation of stimuli received.
Gestalt theory application in the learning process include:
1. The experience of insight (insight); that insight plays an important role in behavior. In the process of learning, learners should have the ability to insight: the ability to know the relationship of elements in an object or event.
2. Learning is meaningful (meaningful learning); significance related elements will support the formation of insight in the learning process. The more obvious meaning of the relationship of an element will be more effective something is learned. It is very important in problem solving activities, particularly in identifying problems and developing alternative solutions. The things that students should have learned the meaning of a clear and logical with the process of life.
3. Behaviour aims (pusposive behavior); that the behavior directed at the goal. Behavior is not only due to stimulus-response relationship, but there is relevance to the objectives to be achieved. The learning process will be effective if learners know the goal to be achieved. Therefore, teachers should be aware of the objectives as a way of teaching activities and assist learners in understanding its purpose.
4. The principle of living space (life space); that individual behavior is related to the environment where it is located. Therefore, the material being taught should have relevance to the situation and environmental conditions of life of learners.
5. Transfer of Learning; namely the transfer of behavioral patterns in specific learning situations to other situations. According to the Gestalt view, transfer of learning occurs by way of releasing the sense of a configuration object in a particular situation and then put in a situation to another configuration in the appropriate governance arrangement. He stressed the importance of catching the main principles in learning and extensive then formulate the general provisions (generalization). Transfer of learning will occur when learners have arrested the main principles of a problem and find a generalization for later use in solving problems in other situations. Therefore, teachers should help learners to master the basic principles of content to be studied.
A. Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorism is one stream of psychology that views individuals only in terms of physical phenomena, and ignore the aspects - the mental aspect. In other words, behaviorism does not acknowledge the existence of intelligence, talents, interests and feelings of individuals in a study. Event learn merely reflexes trained in such a way that it becomes a habit that controlled individual.Some legal learning resulting from this behaviorism approach, including:
1. Connectionism (S-R Bond) by Thorndike.
From the experiments conducted on cats produce Thorndike's laws of learning, including:Law of Effect, meaning that if a satisfactory response effect, the relationship Stimulus - response will be stronger. Conversely, the effect achieved is not satisfactory response, it also weakened the relationship between stimulus-response.
* Law of Readiness; means that readiness refers to the assumption that the satisfaction derived from the organism pemdayagunaan introductory unit (conduction units), where these units lead to a tendency that drives organisms to do or not do something.
* Law of Exercise, meaning that the relationship between stimuli with increases in response closely, if often trained and will be further reduced if rare or not trained.
2. By Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning
From Pavlov's experiments conducted on a dog produce laws of learning, including:
* Law of respondents conditioning that is required by law habituation. If two kinds of stimuli presented simultaneously (one of whom serves as a reinforcer), then the reflex and other stimulus will increase.
* Extinction Law of respondents demanded the extermination of law. If the reflexes that have been strengthened through conditioning RESPONDENT was brought back without presenting reinforcer, then the strength will decrease.
3. Operant conditioning according B.F. Skinner
From the experiments conducted B.F. Skinner on rats and pigeons produce further against the laws of learning, including:
* Law of operant conditining ie, if accompanied by the emergence of stimulus reinforcement behavior, then the strength of these behaviors will increase.
* Law of operant Extinction that is if the occurrence of operant behavior has been strengthened through the process of conditioning stimulus was not accompanied by reinforcement, the strength of these behaviors will decrease and even disappear.
Reber (Muhibin Shah, 2003) mentions that what is meant by operant is a behavior that carries the same effect on the environment. The response in operant conditioning occur without preceded by a stimulus, but by the effects of reinforcer. Reinforcer itself is basically a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a number of specific responses, but not intentionally held as a couple other stimuli such as in classical conditioning.
4. According to Albert Bandura's Social Learning
Social learning theory also called theory of observational learning is a learning theory that is still relatively new compared with other learning theories. Unlike the adherents of other Behaviorism, Bandura view individual behavior is not purely automatic reflex of the stimulus (SR Bond), but also a result of reactions that arise as a result of interaction between the environment with the individual's own cognitive schemes. The basic principle of learning according to this theory, that the studied individuals, especially in social and moral learning occurs through imitation (Imitation) and presenting examples of behavior (modeling). This theory is also still looking at the importance of conditioning. Through the reward and punishment, an individual will think and decide which social behavior needs to be done.
Actually there are many other figures who developed the theory of learning this Behavioristic, such as: Watson that produce frequency principle and the principle of novelty, Guthrie and his theory called Contiguity Theory which produces threshold method (the threshold method), method of exhausting (The Fatigue Method) and unsuitable stimulus method (The Incompatible Response Method), Miller and Dollard with encouragement reduction theory.
B. According to Piaget's Cognitive Learning Theory
Piaget was one figure who is mentioned as a pioneer of constructivism flow. One contribution of his thinking which is widely used as a reference for understanding the individual cognitive development of theories about the stages of individual development. According to Piaget's cognitive development of individuals that includes four stages: (1) the sensory motor, (2) pre-operational, (3) concrete operational, and (4) formal operational. Another Thought of Piaget concerning the reconstruction process that is individual knowledge assimilation and accommodation. James Atherton (2005) mentions that asisimilasi is "the process by which a person takes material into Their mind from the environment, the which May mean changing the Evidence of Their Senses to make it fit" and the accommodation is "the difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation "
He proposed also, that learning will be more successful when tailored to the stage of cognitive development of students. Learners should be given the opportunity to experiment with physical objects, which are supported by the interaction with peers and helped by a question from the teacher insight. Teachers should provide much stimulus to students to want to actively interact with the environment, seek and find different things from the environment.Implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in learning are:
1. Language and the way children think differently from adults. Therefore, teachers teach using appropriate language with the way children think.
2. Children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment. Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
3. Material to be learned kids should just be felt but not foreign.
4. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of its development.
5. In the classroom, children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussions with friends.
C. Information Processing Theory of Robert Gagne
The assumption underlying this theory is that learning is a crucial factor in development. The development is a cumulative result of learning. According to Gagne that learning occurs in the admissions process information, to then be processed to produce output in the form of learning outcomes. In the processing of information occurs the interaction between internal conditions and external conditions of the individual. Internal conditions of a state within the individual who is required to achieve the result of learning and cognitive processes that occur in the individual. While the external condition is stimulation from the environment which affect the individual in the learning process.
According to Gagne stages of the learning process involves eight phases namely, (1) motivation, (2) understanding, (3) acquisition, (4) storage, (5) recall, (6) generalization, (7) treatment and (8) bait behind.
D. Gestalt Learning Theory
Gestalt comes from the German language which has the equivalent meaning as "shape or configuration." Main Gestalt view is that the object or event would be viewed as a whole is organized. According to Koffka and Kohler, there are seven principles which the most important organizations are:
1. Relationships form and background (figure and gound relationship), ie assume that every field of observation can be divided into two, namely the figure (shape) and background. Appearance of an object such as size, cut, color and so on to distinguish figure from background. When the figure and background are vague, there will be a blur of interpretation between background and figure.
2. Proximity (proxmity); that the elements adjacent to each other (both time and space) in the field of observation will be seen as a particular form.
3. Similarity (similarity); that something similar will tend to be viewed as an object which belong to each other.
4. The direction of joint (common direction); that the elements of field observations are in the same direction tend to be perceived as a figure or a certain shape.
5. Simplicity (simplicity); that people tend to organize field observations form a simple, regular appearance and tend to form a good overall arrangement based on symmetrical and regularity; and
6. Closure (closures) that people tend to fill the void of a pattern object or incomplete observations.
There are four assumptions underlying the Gestalt view, namely:
1. Behavior "Molar" should be well studied compared with the behavior of "Molecular". Behavior "Molecular" is the behavior in the form of muscle contraction or release of the gland, while the behavior of "Molar" is the behavior in connection with the outside environment. Running, walking, following college, playing football is some behavior "Molar". Behavior "Molar" is more meaningful than the behavior of "Molecular".
2. What is important in studying the behavior is to distinguish between geographical environment with behavioral environment. Geographical environment is the environment that actually exists, while the behavioral environment refers to something visible. For example, the mountain is visible from afar as if something beautiful. (Behavioral environment), when in fact is an environment full of dense forest (geographic environment).
3. The organism does not react to local stimulation or element or a part of the event, but react to the whole object or event. For example, the naming of a collection of stars, such as: Sagittarius, virgo, pisces, gemini and so is an example of this principle. Another example, the clouds look like a mountain or a particular animal.
4. Giving meaning to a sensory stimulus is a dynamic process and not as a static reaction. Observation process is a dynamic process in providing interpretation of stimuli received.
Gestalt theory application in the learning process include:
1. The experience of insight (insight); that insight plays an important role in behavior. In the process of learning, learners should have the ability to insight: the ability to know the relationship of elements in an object or event.
2. Learning is meaningful (meaningful learning); significance related elements will support the formation of insight in the learning process. The more obvious meaning of the relationship of an element will be more effective something is learned. It is very important in problem solving activities, particularly in identifying problems and developing alternative solutions. The things that students should have learned the meaning of a clear and logical with the process of life.
3. Behaviour aims (pusposive behavior); that the behavior directed at the goal. Behavior is not only due to stimulus-response relationship, but there is relevance to the objectives to be achieved. The learning process will be effective if learners know the goal to be achieved. Therefore, teachers should be aware of the objectives as a way of teaching activities and assist learners in understanding its purpose.
4. The principle of living space (life space); that individual behavior is related to the environment where it is located. Therefore, the material being taught should have relevance to the situation and environmental conditions of life of learners.
5. Transfer of Learning; namely the transfer of behavioral patterns in specific learning situations to other situations. According to the Gestalt view, transfer of learning occurs by way of releasing the sense of a configuration object in a particular situation and then put in a situation to another configuration in the appropriate governance arrangement. He stressed the importance of catching the main principles in learning and extensive then formulate the general provisions (generalization). Transfer of learning will occur when learners have arrested the main principles of a problem and find a generalization for later use in solving problems in other situations. Therefore, teachers should help learners to master the basic principles of content to be studied.
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